BENEVOLENT NON-STATE ACTORS OPERATIONS AND BANDITRY IN KATSINA STATE NIGERIA

ABSTRACT

This study critically examines the operations of Benevolent Non-State Actors (BNSAs) in Katsina State, Nigeria, focusing on their roles in community security and humanitarian assistance, their impact on banditry-related violence, and the risks posed by their unregulated actions. Given the increasing reliance on BNSAs as an alternative to formal security forces in response to growing insecurity, particularly banditry, this research explores both the positive contributions and the potential dangers associated with their activities. Data were collected through a mixed-methods approach, incorporating both quantitative surveys and qualitative interviews with 100 respondents, including community members, BNSA members, and key informants such as local leaders and government officials. The findings reveal that BNSAs play a crucial role in providing security and humanitarian aid, earning significant public trust due to their proximity and responsiveness. However, the study also highlights concerns over the militarization of some BNSAs, their fragmentation, and the human rights violations linked to unregulated operations. Additionally, the research identifies the need for integrating BNSAs into formal security frameworks to ensure better coordination, accountability, and oversight. The study recommends the formal registration, training, and monitoring of BNSAs, alongside the development of partnerships with government and international organizations, to enhance their effectiveness while mitigating associated risks. This research contributes to the ongoing discourse on the role of non-state actors in governance and security, offering policy recommendations aimed at improving governance structures in Nigeria.

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

Background of the Study

Banditry in Nigeria’s northwestern region, particularly in Katsina State, has escalated into a severe security crisis, characterized by frequent attacks, kidnappings, and mass killings (Okoli & Ogayi, 2022). The situation has been exacerbated by the inability of state security forces to effectively combat these criminal networks, leading to a growing reliance on non-state actors for protection and humanitarian assistance (Mustapha, 2021). Among these actors are benevolent non-state actors (BNSAs), including local vigilante groups, community-based organizations, and non-governmental organizations (NGOs), which have stepped in to fill the security and humanitarian gaps left by the government (Hassan & Pieri, 2018). However, their operations remain understudied, particularly in relation to their impact on banditry dynamics in Katsina State.

Katsina State has been one of the worst-hit regions by banditry, with armed groups often referred to as "bandits"—engaging in cattle rustling, kidnappings for ransom, and violent assaults on rural communities (Bello, 2023). The Nigerian government’s counterinsurgency efforts have largely focused on the Boko Haram insurgency in the northeast, leaving the northwest vulnerable to bandit activities (Onuoha, 2020). In response, local communities have formed vigilante groups, such as Yan Sakai and Yan Banga, to defend themselves (Higazi, 2016). These groups operate as BNSAs, providing security and humanitarian aid, yet their involvement has sometimes led to unintended consequences, including extrajudicial killings and further escalation of violence (International Crisis Group [ICG], 2020).

The concept of BNSAs is not new in conflict literature. They are typically defined as non-state entities that engage in humanitarian, security, or development activities without direct state sponsorship (Joshi & Melander, 2017). In other conflict zones, such as Somalia and Syria, BNSAs have played crucial roles in service delivery where state institutions have failed (Ahram, 2015). In Nigeria, particularly in Katsina State, BNSAs have emerged due to the state’s inability to provide adequate security and social services (Eke, 2021). These actors often collaborate with local communities, traditional leaders, and sometimes even security forces to mitigate banditry (Omenma et al., 2020).

However, the effectiveness and legitimacy of BNSAs remain contested. While some scholars argue that they provide essential security and humanitarian support (Pérouse de Montclos, 2018), others highlight their potential to exacerbate conflicts through vigilantism and human rights abuses (Human Rights Watch [HRW], 2022). In Katsina, reports indicate that some vigilante groups have engaged in reprisal attacks against suspected bandits, leading to cycles of violence (Bala-Gbogbo, 2023). This duality underscores the need for a deeper examination of how BNSAs operate within the context of banditry and their overall impact on security dynamics.

            Banditry in Katsina State is deeply rooted in socio-economic and political factors, including poverty, unemployment, and weak governance (Matfess, 2022). The region’s porous borders with Niger Republic have also facilitated the movement of armed groups and illegal firearms (Adamu, 2021). Unlike the ideologically driven Boko Haram insurgency, banditry in the northwest is primarily motivated by economic gain, with criminal networks engaging in large-scale kidnappings for ransom (Campbell, 2022). The Nigerian government’s response has included military operations, such as Operation Hadarin Daji, but these have had limited success due to corruption, intelligence failures, and lack of community trust (Sayne, 2021).

The failure of state-led security measures has led to increased reliance on BNSAs. For instance, local vigilantes often serve as informants for security forces, helping to track bandit movements (Eke, 2021). Additionally, NGOs and community-based organizations provide relief materials to displaced populations affected by banditry (Mercy Corps, 2023). However, the lack of regulation and oversight of these actors raises concerns about accountability and long-term sustainability (ICG, 2021).

            Despite the growing influence of BNSAs in Katsina State, there is limited empirical research on their operations and their relationship with banditry. Most studies on Nigeria’s security challenges focus on Boko Haram or state military responses, neglecting the role of non-state actors in local security architectures (Nwankpa, 2022). Furthermore, while some literature examines vigilante groups in Nigeria (Higazi, 2016), few studies specifically analyze how BNSAs influence banditry dynamics in Katsina. This study seeks to fill this gap by investigating the nature and operations of BNSAs in Katsina State, their impact on banditry, including potential escalations or de-escalations of violence and the challenges and risks associated with their involvement in security and humanitarian activities.

Statement of the Problem

Banditry in Katsina State, Nigeria, has evolved into a severe security crisis, marked by frequent attacks, mass kidnappings, and the displacement of thousands of people (Okoli & Ogayi, 2022). Despite government efforts, including military operations such as Operation Hadarin Daji, the violence persists, exposing the limitations of state-led security measures (Sayne, 2021). In response, local communities have increasingly relied on benevolent non-state actors (BNSAs)—including vigilante groups, NGOs, and community-based organizations—to fill the security and humanitarian gaps (Hassan & Pieri, 2018). However, while these actors provide critical support, their operations remain poorly regulated, raising concerns about accountability, human rights violations, and potential escalations in violence (ICG, 2020).

A key issue is the lack of a structured framework governing the involvement of BNSAs in counter-banditry operations. Vigilante groups, such as Yan Sakai and Yan Banga, often operate with minimal oversight, leading to cases of extrajudicial killings and communal reprisals (HRW, 2022). Reports indicate that some vigilantes have targeted ethnic Fulani communities under the suspicion of harboring bandits, exacerbating inter-communal tensions (Bala-Gbogbo, 2023). This raises critical questions about whether BNSAs contribute to conflict resolution or inadvertently worsen insecurity through uncoordinated and sometimes brutal tactics.

Furthermore, there is limited empirical research on how BNSAs influence the dynamics of banditry in Katsina State. While existing studies have examined Nigeria’s security challenges, most focus on Boko Haram or state military responses, neglecting the role of non-state actors in local security architectures (Nwankpa, 2022). Without a clear understanding of how BNSAs operate, their effectiveness in mitigating banditry remains uncertain. Additionally, their humanitarian efforts—such as providing aid to displaced persons—often go undocumented, making it difficult to assess their long-term impact on peacebuilding (Mercy Corps, 2023).

The absence of a coordinated approach between BNSAs and state security agencies further complicates the situation. In some cases, vigilantes collaborate with the military, serving as local informants (Eke, 2021). However, in others, their activities undermine official security operations, leading to mistrust and operational conflicts (Onuoha, 2020). This disjointed engagement highlights a critical gap in Nigeria’s security strategy, where non-state and state actors operate in parallel rather than in synergy.

Aim of the Study

The aim of this study is to critically examine the operations of Benevolent Non-State Actors (BNSAs) in Katsina State, Nigeria, with a focus on their roles in security and humanitarian efforts, their impact on banditry-related violence, the risks posed by their unregulated actions, and how they can be effectively integrated into the formal security framework for improved governance and accountability.

Objectives of the Study

The specific objectives of the study include;

1. To identify and analyze the primary roles of BNSAs in providing security and humanitarian assistance in Katsina State.
2. To assess the extent to which BNSAs contribute to either the escalation or de-escalation of banditry-related violence.
3. To examine the risks associated with the unregulated operations of BNSAs, particularly in relation to human rights violations and communal conflicts.
4. To explore strategies through which the Nigerian government and international stakeholders can integrate BNSAs into a formalized security structure that ensures accountability and operational effectiveness.

Research Questions

            The following questions guided this study;

1. What are the primary roles of BNSAs in security and humanitarian efforts in Katsina State?
2. To what extent do BNSAs contribute to the escalation or de-escalation of banditry-related violence?
3. What are the risks associated with unregulated BNSA operations, including human rights abuses and communal conflicts?
4. How can the Nigerian government and international stakeholders better integrate BNSAs into a structured security framework to enhance accountability and effectiveness?

Scope of the Study

This study is confined within specific temporal, spatial, and content boundaries to ensure clarity and focus in its examination of benevolent non-state actors (BNSAs) and banditry in Northern Nigeria, with particular emphasis on Katsina State.

In terms of time, the research covers the period from 2015 to 2024. This timeframe is significant because it captures the escalation of banditry-related violence in the region and the increasing prominence of BNSAs in response to the deteriorating security situation. By focusing on this decade, the study is able to assess the evolution of BNSA involvement and the patterns of state and community responses to insecurity.

Spatially, the research is delimited to Katsina State, one of the states most affected by banditry in Nigeria's Northwestern region. Katsina serves as a representative case due to its frequent attacks by armed groups, widespread displacement, and the visible role of local vigilante groups and other BNSAs in providing security and humanitarian aid. Insights from this region may have broader implications for other areas facing similar security challenges across Northern Nigeria.

Content-wise, the study focuses on understanding the roles and operations of BNSAs in addressing insecurity and humanitarian needs, their potential contribution to either escalating or mitigating violence, the risks associated with their unregulated activities, and the prospects for integrating them into a formal security framework. The research does not include for-profit security contractors or purely criminal non-state actors, as it concentrates on those actors operating under the premise of community protection and benevolence.

Significance of the Study

This study is significant as it contributes to a deeper understanding of the evolving security landscape in Northern Nigeria, particularly in Katsina State, by focusing on the operations and impacts of benevolent non-state actors (BNSAs). The findings are expected to provide vital insights into the roles these actors play in security and humanitarian intervention, and the complex dynamics they introduce to the broader governance and peace-building framework in Nigeria.

For policymakers and government authorities, the study offers evidence-based recommendations on how to engage and regulate BNSAs in a way that supports national security goals. It will provide clarity on how these actors can be effectively integrated into the formal security architecture without undermining human rights, the rule of law, or state authority. This can aid in designing comprehensive security reforms that are inclusive, participatory, and community-driven.

The study is also significant to security agencies and law enforcement bodies, as it identifies the strengths and limitations of relying on BNSAs for local intelligence, crisis response, and community engagement. Understanding these dynamics can inform collaboration strategies that promote accountability, reduce tensions, and enhance trust between state and non-state actors.

For humanitarian organizations and development partners, the research highlights the contributions and risks of BNSAs in delivering aid and mediating community conflicts in hard-to-reach or high-risk areas. This can guide donor engagement, capacity-building efforts, and partnerships that aim to bolster local responses to insecurity while upholding humanitarian standards.

Finally, for scholars and researchers, the study adds to the limited body of academic work on informal security actors in Nigeria and Sub-Saharan Africa more broadly. It provides a useful foundation for future studies on non-state governance, peacebuilding, and the intersection between state fragility and community resilience in conflict-affected settings.

Limitations of the Study

While this study aims to offer a comprehensive understanding of benevolent non-state actors’ (BNSAs) operations and their relationship with banditry in Katsina State, several limitations are acknowledged.

Firstly, security concerns in affected areas pose a significant limitation. Due to the volatile nature of banditry-prone communities, accessing some remote or highly insecure regions may not be feasible. This could limit the scope of primary data collection and restrict firsthand insights from residents or BNSA operatives working in the most vulnerable locations.

Secondly, the study may be constrained by the availability and reliability of data. Given the informal and often undocumented nature of BNSA operations, collecting accurate and verifiable information can be challenging. Many of these groups operate without formal registration or public records, which limits the ability to conduct systematic analysis.

Thirdly, there is a potential for bias in responses from interviewees or survey participants. Some BNSAs or community members may exaggerate or downplay their roles due to fear of reprisal, mistrust of researchers, or attempts to protect their image. Likewise, government actors may underreport the role of non-state actors to assert state authority.

Furthermore, the study is geographically limited to Katsina State, which, although relevant and representative, may not capture the full diversity of BNSA operations or banditry dynamics across other parts of Northern Nigeria. Therefore, generalizing the findings to the entire region should be done cautiously.

Lastly, time and resource constraints may limit the depth of fieldwork and restrict longitudinal analysis. Since the study focuses on a specific period (2015–2024), it may not capture long-term trends or the historical roots of BNSA involvement before this timeframe.

Operational Definition of Terms

Benevolent Non-State Actors (BNSAs): In this study, BNSAs refer to informal or semi-formal groups and individuals who are not part of the official government or military structure but engage in security provision, humanitarian assistance, or community protection. These include vigilante groups, religious-based organizations, traditional institutions, community self-help groups, and civil society organizations that act in response to the failure or inadequacy of the state in ensuring safety and welfare.

Banditry: Banditry is defined as the organized or semi-organized perpetration of violent crimes such as kidnapping, armed robbery, cattle rustling, and village raids by groups often operating from forested areas or ungoverned spaces. In the context of Katsina State, banditry is a major source of insecurity and involves both criminal and politically motivated violence.

Security Operations: This term encompasses the actions taken by both state and non-state actors aimed at maintaining peace, preventing violence, and protecting lives and property. In this study, security operations include patrols, surveillance, intelligence gathering, and engagement in direct conflict with bandits.

Humanitarian Efforts: Humanitarian efforts refer to activities carried out to relieve human suffering and meet basic needs during emergencies. These include providing food, shelter, health services, and psychosocial support to victims of banditry and internally displaced persons (IDPs), often carried out by BNSAs when state support is lacking.

Unregulated Operations: Unregulated operations are actions undertaken by BNSAs without formal oversight, legal backing, or standard rules of engagement. These activities may result in abuses, vigilante justice, or uncoordinated responses that further complicate local security dynamics.

Integration into Security Framework: This refers to the process of formally recognizing and incorporating BNSAs into a structured and accountable national or local security system. It includes establishing protocols for collaboration, oversight mechanisms, training, and delineation of responsibilities between state and non-state actors.

1.10 Organization of the Study

This study is structured into five chapters, each addressing key aspects of the research on non-state actors' operations and banditry in North-Western Nigeria.

Chapter One: Introduction

This chapter provides an overview of the study, including the background to the research, the statement of the problem, the aim, research objectives, and research questions. It also defines the scope of the study in terms of time, space, and content, discusses the significance of the research to various stakeholders, highlights its limitations, and presents the operational definitions of key terms.

Chapter Two: Literature Review

This chapter examines existing studies and scholarly discussions related to non-state actors and banditry. It includes a conceptual clarification of key terms, a review of relevant literature on the subject, identification of gaps in existing research, and the theoretical framework that underpins the study.

Chapter Three: Research Methodology

This chapter outlines the research design and methodology adopted for the study. It describes the sources of data, techniques of data collection, population and sampling techniques, and the methods of data presentation and analysis. Additionally, it discusses ethical considerations to ensure the credibility and integrity of the research process.

Chapter Four: Data Presentation and Analysis

This chapter presents the findings of the study based on the collected data. It includes a detailed analysis of the results, using appropriate statistical and qualitative methods to interpret the data. The findings are discussed in relation to the research objectives and theoretical framework.

Chapter Five: Summary, Conclusion, and Recommendations

The final chapter summarizes the key findings of the study, draws conclusions, and provides policy recommendations for addressing banditry and the role of Benevolent non-state actors in Katsina State, Nigeria. It also highlights areas for future research that could further contribute to the understanding of security challenges in the region.